其中两位科学家,海因茨·冯·福斯特(Heinz von Foerster)和戈登·帕斯克(Gordon Pask),对设计产生了浓厚的兴趣,而此时设计正在吸收控制论的经验。该小组的另一位成员格雷戈里·贝特森(Gregory Bateson)引起了系统思想家、设计师和《全球概览》(Whole Earth Catalog)出版人斯图尔特·布兰德(Stewart Brand)的注意。贝特森将布兰德介绍给了冯·福斯特。[3] 布兰德的《全球概览》引发了一场DIY出版革命,其中包括冯·福斯特多达500页的《控制论的控制论》(The Cybernetics of Cybernetics)、未来学家泰德·尼尔森(Ted Nelson)的《计算机自由/梦想机器》(Computer Lib / Dream Machines)以及设计师唐·科伯格(Don Koberg)和吉姆·巴格纳尔(Jim Bagnal)的《通用旅行者: 创造力、解决问题和实现目标过程的软系统指南》(Universal Traveler: A Soft-Systems Guide to Creativity, Problem Solving and the Process of Reaching Goals),以及另外几本关于这种视觉和主题拼贴类型设计的书籍。这些作品不仅是反主流文化的代表,也是尼尔森创造的「超文本」(hypertext)这一术语的早期(印刷)范例。从某种意义上说,它们预示着万维网的互联性。尼尔森在超文本方面的研究与帕斯克在会话理论(conversation theory)方面的研究相互交叉,两者都为未来的人机交互奠定了基础。
从1946年到1953年,小约书亚·梅西基金会组织了十次「关于人类心智运作」(on the workings of the human mind)的系列会议,最初的主题是「生物和社会系统中的反馈机制和循环因果系统」(Circular Causal and Feedback Mechanisms in Biological and Social Systems),后来的主题是「控制论」。这些会议汇集了来自许多领域的参会者:「物理学家、数学家、电子工程师、生理学家、神经学家、实验心理学家、精神病学家、社会学家和文化人类学家」。[6] 超过25人参加了会议,其中包括格雷戈里·贝特森、J·C·R·利克莱德(J.C.R. Licklider)、沃伦·麦卡洛克(Warren McCulloch)、玛格丽特·米德(Margaret Mead)、克劳德·香农(Claude Shannon)、海因茨·冯·福斯特、约翰·冯·诺依曼(John von Neumann)和诺伯特·维纳。
同样在1948年,克劳德·香农发表了相关著作《通信的数学理论》(A Mathematical Theory of Communication)。香农的通信理论为我们提供了「信息」和「噪声」的现代概念。 [10] 他的信息(information)的概念与维纳的消息(message)的概念很类似。
1945年,香农以前的老师范内瓦·布什(Vannevar Bush,曾任罗斯福总统的国家科学顾问)发表了《诚如所思》(As We May Think)一文,这是人机交互史上的一篇开创性文章。布什的这篇文章以描述「Memex」而闻名,这是一种通过信息「建立轨迹」的机器,它预示着超文本和万维网的诞生。然而,布什之所以写这篇文章,是因为他担心,随着知识和工作的日益专业化,「研究者会被成千上万其他工作者的发现和结论所震惊——他没有时间去掌握这些结论,更不用说记住它们了」。此外,危险还在于「......真正重要的成就会在大量无关紧要的东西中消失」。[11]
马图拉纳对人类「生活在会话中」(living in conversation)的兴趣在控制论领域中并非独一无二。例如,戈登·帕斯克提出了「会话理论」,用以思考人类和机器如何学习。会话显然是一个包含反馈、修正和进化的循环过程;会话也可以是关于会话本身——即一种二阶框架。伯纳德·斯科特(Bernard Scott)写道:「二阶控制论试图解释观察者自身。这的确是会话理论的目标。」[25]
控制论的根源之一是神经生物学,梅西会议最初就是为了探索「人类心智的运作」而组织的。根据斯科特的说法,艾什比在1961年指出,应该由第二代控制论来回答「心智是什么?」这个问题,就像第一代控制论回答「人脑是什么?」一样。[29] 控制论领域的科学家们对大脑深感兴趣。有四位科学家撰写了关于这一主题的书籍: 罗斯·艾什比的《大脑设计》(Design for a Brain)、斯塔福德·比尔(Stafford Beer)的《公司的大脑》(Brain of the Firm)、约翰·冯·诺依曼的《计算机与人脑》(The Computer and the Brain)和格雷·沃尔特(Grey Walter)的《活脑》(The Living Brain)。这四部著作都对制造可以当作大脑的机器感兴趣。这些设备可以「计算」——尽管它们并不都是我们今天通常想象中的计算机。相反,虽然控制论影响了主流,但很多控制论机器却指出了另一条没有被采用的计算机发展道路。
1950年,利克莱德成为麻省理工学院的教授。他在美国政府资助的计算研究方面发挥了重要作用,并最终促成了互联网的诞生。他在 1960年发表的论文《人机共生》(Man-Computer Symbiosis)中设想了交互式计算机。人机共生「将涉及人类与电子成员之间非常紧密的耦合。主要目的是:1)让计算机促进推理思维......和 2)使人类和计算机能够在决策和控制复杂情况时进行合作。」[32] 帕克研究中心创始人鲍勃·泰勒(Bob Taylor)指出,利克莱德的论文「为随后几十年的计算机研究指出了方向。」[33] 1968年,利克莱德发表了《作为通信设备的计算机 》(Computer as a Communication Device)一文。文中第一句话就奠定了基调:「用不了几年,人们通过机器交流将比面对面交流更有效。」[34]
当然,布兰德对计算机领域并不陌生。1968年,在联合计算机大会上,他在道格拉斯·恩格尔巴特(Douglas Engelbart)演示在线系统(Online System)时提供了有关舞台布置的建议,并操作了一台摄像机。1972年,布兰德发表了他对米德和贝特森的采访,同年,他在《滚石》杂志上发表了《太空战争》(Space Wars)一文,预言了个人电脑革命的到来。1985年,他参与创立了早期的在线社区WELL(全球电子连线,Whole Earth Electronic Link)。1995年,他在《时代》杂志上发表了《我们把一切都归功于嬉皮士》(We Owe It All to the Hippies)一文,将个人电脑的兴起归功于反主流文化。
就在计算机开始用于图像制作的时候,控制论变得流行起来。有两个展览展出了相关作品。第一个是1968年在伦敦ICA的「控制论的意外发现:计算机与艺术」(Cybernetic Serendipity: The Computer and the Arts )展览[47],展出了帕斯克的「玩具的对话」和比尔的「随机模拟机」(SAM)。 几个月后,在纽约现代艺术博物馆举办的「机械时代终结后的机器」(The Machine as Seen at the End of the Mechanical Age)展览展出了艺术与技术实验小组(E.A.T.)的作品,其中包括杰夫·拉斯金(Jeff Raskin,后来成为苹果公司Macintosh电脑团队的创始成员)的作品。
概览的第一部分「理解整体系统」将巴克敏斯特·富勒(Buckminster Fuller)和冯·福斯特对数学家斯宾塞·布朗(Spencer Brown)的《形式法则》(Laws of Form)的评论并列在一起,接着是生物学家达西·汤普森(D'Arcy Thompson)的《论生长与形式》(On Growth and Form),旁边是建筑师克里斯托弗·亚历山大(Christopher Alexander)的《形式综合论》(Synthesis of Form),还有边栏的冯·福斯特《目的性系统》(Purposive Systems)。紧接着是对人工智能先驱赫伯特·西蒙(Herbert Simon)的《人工科学》(Sciences of the Artificial )和路德维希·冯·贝塔朗菲(Ludwig von Bertalanffy)的《一般系统年鉴》(General Systems Yearbook)的评论。下一页是对维纳的《人有人的用处》(The Human Use of Human Beings)的评论。而这仅仅是前几页。
作为书目巡礼,《全球概览》还评述了其他的设计和控制论经典作品,包括约翰·克里斯·琼斯(John Chris Jones)、维克多·帕帕尼克(Victor Papanek)、罗斯·艾什比、沃伦·麦卡洛克、尼古拉斯·尼葛洛庞帝、劳伦斯·哈尔普林(Lawrence Halprin)、乔治·波利亚(Gyorgy Polya)、乔治·米勒(George Miller)等人的作品。今天,它仍然是一份设计理论和系统理论研究生研讨会的优质阅读清单。
多学科设计的理念在伊姆斯事务所(1941年,the Eames Office)、乔治·尼尔森事务所(1947年,George Nelson Associates)、总体设计公司(1963年,Total Design)、尤尼玛克公司(1965年,Unimark)、五角设计公司(1972年,Pentagram)以及其他从业者中蔚然成风。1955年战后的德国,维纳在乌尔姆设计学院讲学,他们将这种整体或通用的方法称为「环境设计」(environmental design)。美国的学校引进了该理念和术语,其中最著名的是加州大学伯克利分校,该校将其建筑艺术学院转型成了环境设计的现代主义学院。1963年,作为转型的一部分,威廉·沃斯特(William Wurster)院长聘请了设计方法运动的两位创始人霍斯特·里特尔(Horst Rittel)和克里斯托弗·亚历山大。
里特尔曾在乌尔姆设计学院教授运筹学和控制论课程。他在1958年出版了第一部著作,内容是题为《社会学中的传播理论(控制论)》(Kommunikationstheorie in der Soziologie (Kybernetik))的系列讲座。在伯克利,里特尔的设计方法课程明确包含了控制论的概念。他的著作将控制论与设计联系在一起,并将设计描述为一个控制论过程。更重要的是,里特尔该过程视为一种论证性的会话(argumentative conversation),而他的工作则是为会话提供支撑,并开创了一个名为「设计原理」(design rationale)的持续研究领域(设计决策的过程,以及支持和记录这些过程的软件系统)。里特尔的「第二代设计方法」(design methods of the second generation)与二阶控制论遥相呼应。[53] 比尔关于极度复杂系统,及其持续变化的属性和终极不可知性的观点,与里特尔关于「棘手问题」(wicked problems,即那些因其复杂性和利益相关者没有共同参照系而难以解决的问题)的观点极为相似。
*无知的对称:symmetry of ignorance,里特尔认为解决「棘手问题」所需的知识分布在许多专家身上。因此专业性和无知对称地分布在参与解决问题的所有专家身上,没有人因为自己的专业地位而知道得更多。所谓专家通常只是处理具体过程,而不善于处理问题的整体主题。
尾注
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1.Gordon Pask, “A Comment, a Case History, and a Plan,” in Cybernetics, Art and Ideas, ed. Jasia Reichardt (Greenwich, CT: New York Graphics Society, 1971), 76.
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2.Heinz von Foerster, “Cybernetics of Cybernetics,” in Understanding Understanding: Essays on Cybernetics and Cognition, (New York: Springer, 2003), 283-287.
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3.Stewart Brand, correspondence with author Hugh Dubberly, January 31, 2015. Historian Bruce Clarke points out that von Foerster sent a copy of the Whole University Catalogue (1969) to Brand, initiating a correspondence leading to Brand asking von Foerster to contribute to the Whole Earth Catalogue. (Bruce Clarke, correspondence with author Paul Pangaro, August 5, 2015.) Clarke also points out that the Whole University Catalogue (1969), Ecological Source Book (1970), and Metagames (1972) were precursors to Cybernetics of Cybernetics (1974). Von Foerster co-created all four books with students in a series of courses at University of Illinois on “Heuristics.” In a sense, von Foerster began to teach design, not just publication design but design grappling with wicked problems, what today might be seen as an early form of design for social innovation. “von Foerster explained the purpose of the class is ‘to find solutions to problems with constraints. If you want to regulate a system you must understand it,’ he said. ‘Students are concerned with the deep problems of society.’” (Clarke quoting a newspaper report from the time, quoting von Foerster.) The publications von Foerster and his students created reflect his turn to “the systems counterculture.” Clarke notes, “The systems counterculture’s broad cultural effect has been to detoxify the notion of ‘system’ of its military, industrial, and corporate connotations of command and control and to redeploy it in the pursuit of holistic ideals and ecological values.” (Bruce Clarke, “From Information to Cognition: The Systems Counterculture, Heinz von Foerster’s Pedagogy, and Second-Order Cybernetics,” Constructivist Foundations, Vol. 7, No. 3, 2012, 197.)
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4.“Google’s mission is to organize the world’s information and make it universally accessible and useful,” accessed May 10, 2015, http://www.google.com/about/.
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5.Fred Turner, From Counterculture to Cyberculture: Stewart Brand, the Whole Earth Network, and the Rise of Digital Utopianism (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2006), 24.
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6.Heinz von Foerster, ed., “A Note from the Editors,” in Cybernetics: Circular Causal and Feedback Mechanisms in Biological and Social Systems, Transactions of the Eighth Conference (New York: Josiah Macy Jr. Foundation, 1952), 321.
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7.Norbert Wiener, The Human Use of Human Beings: Cybernetics and Society (New York: Houghton Mifflin, 1950), 15.
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8.Norbert Wiener, Cybernetics: or Control and Communication in the Animal and the Machine (New York: Wiley, 1948), 11.
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9.Wiener, The Human Use of Human Beings, 16.
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10.Claude Shannon, “A Mathematical Theory of Communications,” The Bell System Technical Journal, 27 (July-October 1948), 379-423, 623-656.
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11.Vannevar Bush, “As We May Think,” Atlantic Monthly, (July 1945): 2, accessed April 12, 2015, http://www.theatlantic.com/ideastour/ technology/bush-full.html.
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12.von Foerster, “A Note from the Editors,” in Cybernetics, 322.
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13.Gordon Pask, An Approach to Cybernetics, (London: Hutchinson, 1961), 6.
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14.Turner, From Counterculture to Cyberculture, 27.
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15.Margaret Mead, “Cybernetics of Cybernetics,” in Purposive Systems: Proceedings of the First Annual Symposium of the American Society for Cybernetics, ed. in Heinz von Foerster et al, (New York: Spartan Books, 1968), 4-5.
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16.Stewart Brand, “For God’s Sake, Margaret,” a conversation with Margaret Mead and Gregory Bateson, CoEvolutionary Quarterly, 10. No. 21(June 1976), 32-44, accessed April 12, 2015, http://www.oikos.org/forgod.htm.
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17.von Foerster, ed., “A Note from the Editors,” in Cybernetics, 321.
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18.Heinz von Foerster, original manuscript (December 12, 1951) supplied by Albert Müller of the von Foerster Archive, was published in edited form and referenced in note 6.
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19.Mead, “Cybernetics of Cybernetics,” in Purposive Systems, 10.
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20.Brand, “For God’s Sake, Margaret,” 12-13.
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21.Heinz von Foerster, “Ethics and Second-order Cybernetics,” in Understanding Understanding, Essays on Cybernetics and Cognition, (New York: Springer-Verlag, 2003), 316.
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22.Turner, From Counterculture to Cyberculture, 120.
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23.Humberto Maturana, “The Neurophysiology of Cognition,” in Cognition: A Multiple View, ed. P. Gavin (New York: Spartan Books, 1969), 4.
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24.Humberto Maturana, “Metadesign,” (paper presented at Institutuo de Terapia Cognitiva (INTECO), Santiago, Chile, August 1, 1997), n.p., accessed April 12, 2015, http://www.inteco.cl/articulos/006/texto_ing.htm.
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25.Bernard Scott, “The Cybernetics of Gordon Pask,” in Gordon Pask, Philosopher Mechanic: An Introduction to the Cybernetician’s Cybernetician, ed. Ranulph Glanville and Karl H. Müller, (Vienna: Edition Echoraum, WISDOM), 41.
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26.von Foerster, “Cybernetics of Cybernetics”, in Purposive Systems, 266.
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27.Maturana, “Metadesign.”
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28.Ibid.
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29.Scott, “The Cybernetics of Gordon Pask,” 41.
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30.Ross Ashby, “Design for a Brain,” Electrical Engineering, 20 (1948), 379.
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31.Andrew Pickering, The Cybernetic Brain: Sketches of Another Future, (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2010), 19.
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32.J.C.R. Licklider, “Man-Computer Symbiosis,” Transactions on Human Factors in Electronics, (March, 1960), 4.
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33.Robert W. Taylor, In Memoriam: J.C.R. Licklider: 1915-1990, “Preface,” (Palo Alto: Digital Equipment Corporation, Systems Research Center, August 7, 1990), 5.
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34.J.C.R. Licklider, “The Computer as a Communication Device,” Science and Technology, (April 1968), 21.
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35.Albert Müller, “A Brief History of the BCL, Heinz von Foerster and the Biological Computing Laboratory,” in An Unfinished Revolution? (Vienna: Edition Echoraum, 2007), 279.
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36.Pickering, The Cybernetic Brain, 237.
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37.Müller, “A Brief History of the BCL: Heinz von Foerster and the Biological Computing Laboratory,” 294.
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38.Turner, From Counterculture to Cyberculture, 26.
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39.Pickering, The Cybernetic Brain, 6-7.
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40.Ted Nelson, correspondence with author Hugh Dubberly, March 21, 2015.
44.John Markoff, What the Dormouse Said: How the Sixties Counter-culture Shaped the Personal Computer Industry, (London: Penguin, 2003).
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45.Ted Nelson, correspondence with author Hugh Dubberly, March 21, 2015.
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46.Stewart Brand, correspondence with author Hugh Dubberly, January 31, 2015. Louise Sandhaus brought our attention to an example of Wiener’s influence on the arts. In his 1970 book Expanded Cinema, Gene Youngblood writes about the “cybernetic movie studio” and the “transition from the Industrial Age to the Cybernetic Age,” which he calls “Paleocybernetic”—combing “the primitive potential associated with Paleolithic and the transcendental integrities of ‘practical utopianism’ associated with Cybernetic … an image of a hairy, buckskinned, barefooted atomic physicist with a brain full of mescaline and logarithms…. It’s the dawn of man: for the first time in history we’ll soon be free enough to discover who we are.” (See Gene Youngblood, Expanded Cinema, New York: E.P. Dutton, 1970, 41.) Buckminster Fuller wrote the introduction, and Stewart Brand included a review in the Whole Earth Catalog. Later, Youngblood met members of the “second generation” of cybernetics and began a book (never completed) on Humberto Maturana and Francisco Varela. Youngblood reports, “Their theory of autopoiesis and the second-order cybernetics that Heinz [von Foerster] derived from it, changed my life. At last, I felt, here was biological (not just philosophical) proof of the impossibility of objectivity, the foundation of the mass media’s bogus legitimacy. Later, I became more interested in autopoiesis as a framework for talking about autonomy, which Maturana/ Varela explicitly acknowledged, and which I use to this day.” (Gene Youngblood correspondence with author Paul Pangaro, July 27, 2015.)
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47.In 1969, Frank Oppenheimer imported Cybernetic Serendipity to San Francisco as the opening exhibition of his ground-breaking interactive learning environment, the Exploratorium. Its cavernous, unfinished interior created an appropriately immersive environment for the city that spawned Haight-Ashbury and other beacons of counter-culture. This began a long history of public exhibitions that amplified curiosity and encouraged the trial-and-error, cybernetic approach that Oppenheimer championed. His vision was a new type of learning for an age of social experimentation, bringing together art and science to foster an experiential understanding of phenomena in the world through interaction.
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48.Stewart Brand, The Last Whole Earth Catalog: Access to Tools, (Menlo Park, CA: Portola Institute, 1973), 1.
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49.Steve Jobs, Stanford University Commencement Address, June 14, 2005, accessed April 12, 2015, http://news.stanford.edu/news/2005/june15/jobs-061505.html.
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50.Turner has chronicled the influence of cybernetics on Brand, Fuller, and McLuhan, and how it led to “cyberculture.” For example, Alan Kay took the PARC librarian to the Whole Earth Truck Store, and “they bought a copy of every book there.” See Fred Turner, From Counterculture to Cyberculture: Stewart Brand, the Whole Earth Network, and the Rise of Digital Utopianism, (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2006), 112.
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51.Stewart Brand, correspondence with author Hugh Dubberly, January 31, 2015.
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52.Buckminster Fuller, Ideas and Integrities: A Spontaneous Autobiographical Disclosure (New York: Macmillan, 1969).
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53.Chanpory Rith and Hugh Dubberly, “Why Horst W.J. Rittel Matters,” Design Issues, vol. 23, no. 4, (Autumn 2006), 72-91.
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54.Ashby’s work is particularly important for its comprehensiveness and rigor. In addition to Design for a Brain, his Introduction to Cybernetics (London: Chapman & Hall, 1956) is important because it defined the concept of “variety” as a measure of the degree of a system’s ability to respond to disturbances. By extension, a system has “requisite variety” (RV) if it can maintain homeostasis in the face of a range of disturbances. RV is an important contribution with many implications—for systems theory and modeling directly, and also for design and ethics. For design, RV provides a way to rationally frame the questions: What is “good enough?” And who needs to be involved? For ethics, RV is a foundation for von Foerster’s “ethical imperative.”
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55.Pickering, The Cybernetic Brain, 157.
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56.Chuck Owen, correspondence with author Hugh Dubberly, April 1, 2015.
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57.Ralph Caplan, correspondence with author Hugh Dubberly, March 28, 2015.
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58.Pickering, The Cybernetic Brain, 382.
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59.Gordon Pask, “The Architectural Relevance of Cybernetics,” Architectural Design, (1969) 494.
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60.Ibid.
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61.Ranulph Glanville, “A (Cybernetic) Musing: Design and Cybernetics,” Cybernetics and Human Knowing, (Vol. 16: 3-4, 2009), 175.
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62.Usman Haque, “The Architectural Relevance of Gordon Pask,” Architectural Design, 77, no. 4 (July/August 2007), 54-61.
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63.Horst Rittel, “On the Planning Crisis: Systems Analysis of the ‘First and Second Generations’.” Bedrifts Økonomen. 8 (1972), 394.
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64.Pask, “The Architectural Relevance of Cybernetics,” 494.
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